
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Foreign Direct Investment Inflows to Selected Sub-Sahara African (SSA) Countries Behaved Differently in The Global Financial Crisis of (2007-2008) Relative to Previous Global Financial Crises
Corresponding Author(s) : Onu, King Ezebunwa
American Journal of Economics and Business Management,
Vol. 8 No. 2 (2025): February
Abstract
This study investigated the behavior of foreign direct investment inflows to selected Sub-Sahara African (SSA) Countries during (2007- 2008) global financial crisis relative to previous financial crises. This study was motivated by the assertion that developing economies are immune to the financial and economic meltdown that originated in developed world in 2007. Specifically, the study examined whether the behavior of foreign direct investment inflow to SSA differs in the context of (2007-2008) global financial crisis compared with the previous global financial crises in the short and long-run situations. Using panel datasets from 26 SSA countries, the study explored non-stationarity and heterogeneous – based dynamic panel estimators namely, mean group (MG) and pooled mean group (PMG) to empirically implement the objective. The findings of the study amongst others revealed that foreign direct investment (FDI) inflows to SSA significantly differs in behavior in the context of the (2007- 2008) global financial crisis in the short and long run situations. The study suggests policy that may stabilize growth of FDI inflows, such as allowing free license of operation, maintaining exchange rate stability, improving the business climate and guaranteeing strong and stable macroeconomic performance. Thus, more foreign investors should be attracted, and trust in current ones would rise, which should increase investment opportunities and growth in the region. Therefore, greater attention should be given to FDI whenever global financial crisis is experienced.
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- . S. Adams, "Foreign direct investment, domestic investment, and economic growth in sub-Saharan Africa," Journal of Policy Modeling, vol. 31, no. 6, pp. 939–949, 2009.
- . J. P. Agarwal, "Determinants of foreign direct investment: A survey," Review of World Economics (Weltwirtschaftliches Archiv), vol. 116, no. 4, pp. 739–773, 1980.
- . H. L. Ahuja, Modern Economics, 17th ed. New Delhi: S. Chand Publishing Ltd., 2013.
- . L. Alfaro, A. Chanda, S. Kalemli-Ozcan, and S. Sayek, "FDI and economic growth: The role of local financial markets," Journal of International Economics, vol. 64, no. 3, pp. 89–112, 2004.
- . L. Alfaro and M. Chen, "Surviving the global financial crisis: Foreign ownership and establishment performance," American Economic Journal: Economic Policy, vol. 4, no. 3, pp. 30–55, 2012.
- . P. Athukorala, "FDI in crisis and recovery: Lessons from the 1997–98 Asian crisis," Working Papers in Trade and Development, Australian National University, 2003.
- . A. Bandara, "The impact of global financial and economic crisis on Africa: Transmission channels and policy implications," in International Conference on Rethinking African Economic Policy in Light of the Global Economic and Financial Crisis, 2010.
- . J. Breitung, "The local power of some unit root tests for panel data," in Non-Stationary Panels, Panel Cointegration, and Dynamic Panels, B. Baltagi, Ed. Advances in Econometrics, vol. 15, no. 3, pp. 161–178, 2000.
- . B. Buchana, Q. V. Le, and M. Rishi, "Foreign direct investment and institutional quality: Some empirical evidence," International Review of Financial Analysis, vol. 21, no. 2, pp. 81–89, 2012.
- . D. Cheong, "Surviving a currency crisis: How much did FDI and exports account for firm resilience in Asia?" Johns Hopkins University, 2006.
- . A. Cuza and L. Dorneana, "The dynamics of FDI inflows during the last three decades: A comparative analysis between developing and developed countries," University of Iasi Romania, 2015.
- . V. Denisia, "Foreign direct investment theories: An overview of the main FDI theories," European Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies, vol. 3, p. 7, 2010. Available: https://ssrn.com/abstract=1804514.
- . M. Desai, F. Foley, and K. Forbes, "Financial constraints and growth: Multinational and local firm responses to currency crises," Review of Financial Studies, vol. 21, no. 3, pp. 2857–2888, 2008.
- . A. Dorneana, V. Isan, and D. Oanea, "The impact of the recent global crisis on foreign direct investment: Evidence from Central and Eastern European countries," Procedia Economics and Finance, vol. 3, pp. 1012–1017, 2012.
- . J. H. Dunning, "The eclectic (OLI) paradigm of international production: Past, present and future," International Journal of the Economics of Business, vol. 8, no. 2, pp. 173–190, 2002.
- . J. H. Dunning, "The eclectic paradigm as an envelope for economic and business theories of MNE activity," International Business Review, vol. 9, no. 2, pp. 163–190, 2000.
- . D. W. Edgington and R. Hayter, "Japanese direct foreign investment and the Asian financial crisis," Geoforum, vol. 32, no. 1, pp. 103–120, 2001.
- . C. B. Ezirim and M. I. Muoghalu, "Exchange rate determination, foreign investment burden and external debt crisis in less-developed countries: Nigerian Economics Perspectives," Nigerian Economic Review, vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 1–15, 2006.
- . W. Fedderke and A. T. Romm, "Growth impact and determinants of foreign direct investment into South Africa," Economic Modelling, vol. 23, no. 9, pp. 738–760, 2006.
- . K. A. Froot and J. C. Stein, "Exchange rates and foreign direct investment: An imperfect capital markets approach," Quarterly Journal of Economics, vol. 106, no. 3, pp. 1191–1217, 1991.
- . E. M. Graham and E. Wada, "Domestic reform, trade and investment liberalization, financial crisis and foreign direct investment into Mexico," World Economy, vol. 23, no. 6, pp. 99–111, 2000.
- . S. Guris, I. S. Sacildi, and E. G. Genc, "Determining the effects of factors on FDI in the global crisis period," International Journal of Economics and Financial Issues, vol. 5, no. 1, pp. 1–10, 2015.
- . K. Hadri, "Testing for stationarity in the heterogeneous panel," Econometrics Journal, vol. 3, no. 5, pp. 148–161, 2000.
- . R. D. Harris and E. Tzavalis, "Inference for unit roots in dynamic panels where the time dimension is fixed," Journal of Econometrics, vol. 91, no. 2, pp. 201–226, 1999.
- . A. E. Harrison, I. Love, and M. S. McMillian, "Global capital flows and financing constraints," Journal of Development Economics, vol. 75, no. 4, pp. 269–301, 2004.
- . H. Hill and J. Jongwanich, "Outward foreign direct investment and the financial crisis in developing East Asia," Asian Development Review, vol. 26, no. 2, pp. 1–25, 2009.
- . IMF, Research Economic Outlook for Sub-Saharan Africa, 2013.
- . P. G. Jeffrey and R. B. Spraulding, Understanding Foreign Direct Investment (FDI), Defunct City Bank International, 2005.
- . N. Jensen, "Political risk, democratic institutions, and foreign direct investment," Journal of Politics, vol. 70, no. 4, pp. 1040–1052, 2006.
- . U. Joshua, M. E. Rotimi, and S. A. Sarkodie, "Global FDI inflow and its implication across economic income groups," Journal of Risk and Financial Management, vol. 13, no. 291, 2020. Available: https://doi.org/10.3390/jrfm13110291.
- . K. Kojima, "Japanese and American direct investment in Asia: A comparative analysis," Hitotsubashi Journal of Economics, vol. 26, pp. 1–35, 1985.
- . S. Lall and P. Streeten, Foreign Investment, Transnationals, and Developing Countries, Macmillan, 1977.
- . A. Levin, C. F. Lin, and C. J. Chu, "Unit root tests in panel data: Asymptotic and finite sample properties," Journal of Econometrics, vol. 108, pp. 1–24, 2002.
- . M. Desai, F. Foley, and J. Hines, "Foreign Direct Investment and Currency Crises," Journal of International Economics, vol. 68, no. 1, pp. 66-90, 2006.
- . M. Aguiar and G. Gopinath, "Fire-Sale Foreign Direct Investment and Liquidity Crises," Review of Economics and Statistics, vol. 87, no. 3, pp. 439-452, 2005.
- . L. Alfaro, A. Chanda, S. Kalemli-Ozcan, and S. Sayek, "FDI and Economic Growth: The Role of Local Financial Markets," Journal of International Economics, vol. 64, no. 1, pp. 89-112, 2004.
- . P. Athukorala, "FDI and Crisis Resilience: Lessons from the Asian Financial Crisis," Economic Papers, vol. 27, no. 3, pp. 289-310, 2008.
- . J. Cheong, "Export Performance of Firms during Financial Crises," Economic Review, vol. 32, no. 4, pp. 50-66, 2010.
- . P. Loungani and A. Razin, "How Beneficial Is Foreign Direct Investment for Developing Countries?" Finance and Development, vol. 38, no. 2, pp. 6-10, 2001.
- . H. Kim and J. Hwang, "Foreign Direct Investment and Financial Market Stability," Global Economic Review, vol. 43, no. 1, pp. 45-63, 2014.
- . R. Lipsey, "Foreign Direct Investment and Economic Growth in Latin America," World Bank Economic Review, vol. 17, no. 3, pp. 321-340, 2003.
- . E. M. Graham and E. Wada, "Foreign Direct Investment in Mexico before and after the 1994 Financial Crisis," International Economic Journal, vol. 14, no. 3, pp. 33-53, 2000.
- . S. Urata, "FDI in Latin America: The Impact of Economic Crises," Asian Economic Journal, vol. 18, no. 3, pp. 231-254, 2004.
- . N. Odhiambo, "FDI and Economic Growth in Sub-Saharan Africa," African Development Review, vol. 21, no. 2, pp. 1-22, 2009.
- . L. Dornean, L. Isan, and D. Oanea, "The Impact of Financial Crises on FDI in Central and Eastern Europe," Economic Studies Journal, vol. 20, no. 3, pp. 45-67, 2012.
- . G. Vintila, "Financial Crises and Foreign Direct Investment: Evidence from the Global Economy," Journal of Global Business and Trade, vol. 12, no. 1, pp. 55-78, 2015.
- . P. Mamata, "FDI and Financial Crises: A Study of the Indian Real Estate Sector," Economic Policy Review, vol. 9, no. 4, pp. 88-110, 2017.
- . H. Ucal, J. Ozcan, and S. Genc, "Financial Crises and FDI in Developing Countries," International Economics Journal, vol. 19, no. 2, pp. 223-248, 2015.
- . L. Alfaro and M. Chen, "Foreign Investment and Financial Crises," Harvard Business Review, vol. 28, no. 4, pp. 1-18, 2013.
- . UNCTAD, World Investment Report: 2009, United Nations, 2009.
- . UNCTAD, World Investment Report: 2010, United Nations, 2010.
- . E. Esho and G. Verhoef, "FDI, Foreign Aid, and Trade: Their Impact on Poverty Reduction in Sub-Saharan Africa," African Journal of Economic Policy, vol. 30, no. 3, pp. 132-148, 2019.
- . J. Joshua, T. Rotimi, and A. Sardokie, "Foreign Direct Investment and Economic Growth in 200 Global Economies," Economic Growth Studies Journal, vol. 27, no. 2, pp. 56-82, 2018.
- . J. Joshua, "GDP, FDI, and Government Spending in Nigeria: An ARDL Analysis," African Economic Review, vol. 19, no. 1, pp. 99-118, 2020.
- . J. Buchanan, Q. T. Le, and M. Rishi, "FDI Volatility and Institutional Quality: Evidence from a Panel of 164 Nations," Journal of International Development, vol. 22, no. 5, pp. 34-56, 2017.
- . G. Bogach and I. Noy, "How Do Financial Crises Impact Foreign Direct Investment?" Global Economic Review, vol. 32, no. 4, pp. 1-20, 2014.
- . E. Udoh and F. O. Egwaikhide, "Exchange Rate Volatility and FDI in Nigeria," West African Journal of Economics, vol. 8, no. 3, pp. 124-138, 2011.
- . V. Ezirim and M. Muoghalu, "Exchange Rate and Nigeria’s External Debt Burden," International Journal of Economics and Finance, vol. 15, no. 4, pp. 78-102, 2013.
- . A. Soliman, "Currency Crises and FDI in Emerging Markets," Emerging Markets Review, vol. 18, no. 2, pp. 67-92, 2015.
- . B. A. Blonigen, "A Review of the Empirical Literature on FDI Determinants," Atlantic Economic Journal, vol. 33, no. 4, pp. 383-403, 2005.
- . K. Froot and J. Stein, "Exchange Rates and Foreign Direct Investment: An Imperfect Capital Markets Approach," Quarterly Journal of Economics, vol. 106, no. 4, pp. 1191-1217, 1991.
- . M. Klein and E. Rosengren, "The Real Exchange Rate and Foreign Direct Investment in the United States: Relative Wealth vs. Relative Wage Effects," Journal of International Economics, vol. 36, no. 3-4, pp. 373-389, 1994.
- . T. Harris and P. Tzavalis, "Inference for Unit Roots in Dynamic Panels with Fixed T," Journal of Econometrics, vol. 75, no. 1, pp. 135-156, 1996.
- . J. Breitung, "A Panel Unit Root Test with Cross-Sectional Dependence," Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics, vol. 63, no. 1, pp. 401-422, 2000.
- . A. Levin, C. Lin, and J. Chu, "Unit Root Tests in Panel Data: Asymptotic and Finite-Sample Properties," Journal of Econometrics, vol. 108, no. 1, pp. 1-24, 2002.
- . K. Im, M. Pesaran, and Y. Shin, "Testing for Unit Roots in Heterogeneous Panels," Journal of Econometrics, vol. 115, no. 1, pp. 53-74, 2003.
- . G. S. Maddala and S. Wu, "A Comparative Study of Unit Root Tests with Panel Data and a New Simple Test," Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics, vol. 61, no. 1, pp. 631-652, 1999.
- . M. H. Pesaran, "A Simple Panel Unit Root Test in the Presence of Cross-Section Dependence," Journal of Applied Econometrics, vol. 22, no. 2, pp. 265-312, 2007.
- . K. Hadri, "Testing for Stationarity in Heterogeneous Panel Data," The Econometrics Journal, vol. 3, no. 2, pp. 148-161, 2000.
- . A. Alavinasab, "The Impact of Labor Costs on Foreign Direct Investment Inflows: A Case Study of Developing Countries," International Journal of Economic Studies, vol. 45, no. 3, pp. 312-329, 2011.
- . C. Okafor, T. O. Akinola, and M. U. Uchenna, "Labor Costs and Foreign Direct Investment in Sub-Saharan Africa," African Development Review, vol. 27, no. 2, pp. 278-291, 2015.
- . N. Mfinanga, "FDI Inflows and Labor Market Regulations in Emerging Economies," Journal of Economic Growth Studies, vol. 14, no. 1, pp. 45-67, 2016.
- . W. Hejazi, "The Impact of GDP Growth on FDI: Evidence from Emerging Markets," Economic Policy Review, vol. 31, no. 4, pp. 123-143, 2018.
- . D. Medvedev, "Growth Effects of Foreign Direct Investment in Transition Economies," Economic Policy Journal, vol. 29, no. 1, pp. 87-103, 2006.
- . B. Kahouli and N. Kadhraoui, "Determinants of FDI in Developing Economies: A Dynamic Panel Approach," Journal of Global Business and Trade, vol. 9, no. 3, pp. 230-250, 2012.
- . R. Rajan, "The Global Financial Crisis and Developing Economies: Did Emerging Markets Get Hit?" Journal of Financial Economics, vol. 45, no. 2, pp. 88-102, 2010.
- . D. Rodrik, "The Impact of the Global Financial Crisis on Developing Countries," Harvard Economic Review, vol. 33, no. 1, pp. 56-72, 2011.
- . L. Dornean, L. Isan, and D. Oanea, "The Impact of Financial Crises on FDI in Emerging Economies," Economic Studies Journal, vol. 24, no. 2, pp. 32-48, 2013.
References
. S. Adams, "Foreign direct investment, domestic investment, and economic growth in sub-Saharan Africa," Journal of Policy Modeling, vol. 31, no. 6, pp. 939–949, 2009.
. J. P. Agarwal, "Determinants of foreign direct investment: A survey," Review of World Economics (Weltwirtschaftliches Archiv), vol. 116, no. 4, pp. 739–773, 1980.
. H. L. Ahuja, Modern Economics, 17th ed. New Delhi: S. Chand Publishing Ltd., 2013.
. L. Alfaro, A. Chanda, S. Kalemli-Ozcan, and S. Sayek, "FDI and economic growth: The role of local financial markets," Journal of International Economics, vol. 64, no. 3, pp. 89–112, 2004.
. L. Alfaro and M. Chen, "Surviving the global financial crisis: Foreign ownership and establishment performance," American Economic Journal: Economic Policy, vol. 4, no. 3, pp. 30–55, 2012.
. P. Athukorala, "FDI in crisis and recovery: Lessons from the 1997–98 Asian crisis," Working Papers in Trade and Development, Australian National University, 2003.
. A. Bandara, "The impact of global financial and economic crisis on Africa: Transmission channels and policy implications," in International Conference on Rethinking African Economic Policy in Light of the Global Economic and Financial Crisis, 2010.
. J. Breitung, "The local power of some unit root tests for panel data," in Non-Stationary Panels, Panel Cointegration, and Dynamic Panels, B. Baltagi, Ed. Advances in Econometrics, vol. 15, no. 3, pp. 161–178, 2000.
. B. Buchana, Q. V. Le, and M. Rishi, "Foreign direct investment and institutional quality: Some empirical evidence," International Review of Financial Analysis, vol. 21, no. 2, pp. 81–89, 2012.
. D. Cheong, "Surviving a currency crisis: How much did FDI and exports account for firm resilience in Asia?" Johns Hopkins University, 2006.
. A. Cuza and L. Dorneana, "The dynamics of FDI inflows during the last three decades: A comparative analysis between developing and developed countries," University of Iasi Romania, 2015.
. V. Denisia, "Foreign direct investment theories: An overview of the main FDI theories," European Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies, vol. 3, p. 7, 2010. Available: https://ssrn.com/abstract=1804514.
. M. Desai, F. Foley, and K. Forbes, "Financial constraints and growth: Multinational and local firm responses to currency crises," Review of Financial Studies, vol. 21, no. 3, pp. 2857–2888, 2008.
. A. Dorneana, V. Isan, and D. Oanea, "The impact of the recent global crisis on foreign direct investment: Evidence from Central and Eastern European countries," Procedia Economics and Finance, vol. 3, pp. 1012–1017, 2012.
. J. H. Dunning, "The eclectic (OLI) paradigm of international production: Past, present and future," International Journal of the Economics of Business, vol. 8, no. 2, pp. 173–190, 2002.
. J. H. Dunning, "The eclectic paradigm as an envelope for economic and business theories of MNE activity," International Business Review, vol. 9, no. 2, pp. 163–190, 2000.
. D. W. Edgington and R. Hayter, "Japanese direct foreign investment and the Asian financial crisis," Geoforum, vol. 32, no. 1, pp. 103–120, 2001.
. C. B. Ezirim and M. I. Muoghalu, "Exchange rate determination, foreign investment burden and external debt crisis in less-developed countries: Nigerian Economics Perspectives," Nigerian Economic Review, vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 1–15, 2006.
. W. Fedderke and A. T. Romm, "Growth impact and determinants of foreign direct investment into South Africa," Economic Modelling, vol. 23, no. 9, pp. 738–760, 2006.
. K. A. Froot and J. C. Stein, "Exchange rates and foreign direct investment: An imperfect capital markets approach," Quarterly Journal of Economics, vol. 106, no. 3, pp. 1191–1217, 1991.
. E. M. Graham and E. Wada, "Domestic reform, trade and investment liberalization, financial crisis and foreign direct investment into Mexico," World Economy, vol. 23, no. 6, pp. 99–111, 2000.
. S. Guris, I. S. Sacildi, and E. G. Genc, "Determining the effects of factors on FDI in the global crisis period," International Journal of Economics and Financial Issues, vol. 5, no. 1, pp. 1–10, 2015.
. K. Hadri, "Testing for stationarity in the heterogeneous panel," Econometrics Journal, vol. 3, no. 5, pp. 148–161, 2000.
. R. D. Harris and E. Tzavalis, "Inference for unit roots in dynamic panels where the time dimension is fixed," Journal of Econometrics, vol. 91, no. 2, pp. 201–226, 1999.
. A. E. Harrison, I. Love, and M. S. McMillian, "Global capital flows and financing constraints," Journal of Development Economics, vol. 75, no. 4, pp. 269–301, 2004.
. H. Hill and J. Jongwanich, "Outward foreign direct investment and the financial crisis in developing East Asia," Asian Development Review, vol. 26, no. 2, pp. 1–25, 2009.
. IMF, Research Economic Outlook for Sub-Saharan Africa, 2013.
. P. G. Jeffrey and R. B. Spraulding, Understanding Foreign Direct Investment (FDI), Defunct City Bank International, 2005.
. N. Jensen, "Political risk, democratic institutions, and foreign direct investment," Journal of Politics, vol. 70, no. 4, pp. 1040–1052, 2006.
. U. Joshua, M. E. Rotimi, and S. A. Sarkodie, "Global FDI inflow and its implication across economic income groups," Journal of Risk and Financial Management, vol. 13, no. 291, 2020. Available: https://doi.org/10.3390/jrfm13110291.
. K. Kojima, "Japanese and American direct investment in Asia: A comparative analysis," Hitotsubashi Journal of Economics, vol. 26, pp. 1–35, 1985.
. S. Lall and P. Streeten, Foreign Investment, Transnationals, and Developing Countries, Macmillan, 1977.
. A. Levin, C. F. Lin, and C. J. Chu, "Unit root tests in panel data: Asymptotic and finite sample properties," Journal of Econometrics, vol. 108, pp. 1–24, 2002.
. M. Desai, F. Foley, and J. Hines, "Foreign Direct Investment and Currency Crises," Journal of International Economics, vol. 68, no. 1, pp. 66-90, 2006.
. M. Aguiar and G. Gopinath, "Fire-Sale Foreign Direct Investment and Liquidity Crises," Review of Economics and Statistics, vol. 87, no. 3, pp. 439-452, 2005.
. L. Alfaro, A. Chanda, S. Kalemli-Ozcan, and S. Sayek, "FDI and Economic Growth: The Role of Local Financial Markets," Journal of International Economics, vol. 64, no. 1, pp. 89-112, 2004.
. P. Athukorala, "FDI and Crisis Resilience: Lessons from the Asian Financial Crisis," Economic Papers, vol. 27, no. 3, pp. 289-310, 2008.
. J. Cheong, "Export Performance of Firms during Financial Crises," Economic Review, vol. 32, no. 4, pp. 50-66, 2010.
. P. Loungani and A. Razin, "How Beneficial Is Foreign Direct Investment for Developing Countries?" Finance and Development, vol. 38, no. 2, pp. 6-10, 2001.
. H. Kim and J. Hwang, "Foreign Direct Investment and Financial Market Stability," Global Economic Review, vol. 43, no. 1, pp. 45-63, 2014.
. R. Lipsey, "Foreign Direct Investment and Economic Growth in Latin America," World Bank Economic Review, vol. 17, no. 3, pp. 321-340, 2003.
. E. M. Graham and E. Wada, "Foreign Direct Investment in Mexico before and after the 1994 Financial Crisis," International Economic Journal, vol. 14, no. 3, pp. 33-53, 2000.
. S. Urata, "FDI in Latin America: The Impact of Economic Crises," Asian Economic Journal, vol. 18, no. 3, pp. 231-254, 2004.
. N. Odhiambo, "FDI and Economic Growth in Sub-Saharan Africa," African Development Review, vol. 21, no. 2, pp. 1-22, 2009.
. L. Dornean, L. Isan, and D. Oanea, "The Impact of Financial Crises on FDI in Central and Eastern Europe," Economic Studies Journal, vol. 20, no. 3, pp. 45-67, 2012.
. G. Vintila, "Financial Crises and Foreign Direct Investment: Evidence from the Global Economy," Journal of Global Business and Trade, vol. 12, no. 1, pp. 55-78, 2015.
. P. Mamata, "FDI and Financial Crises: A Study of the Indian Real Estate Sector," Economic Policy Review, vol. 9, no. 4, pp. 88-110, 2017.
. H. Ucal, J. Ozcan, and S. Genc, "Financial Crises and FDI in Developing Countries," International Economics Journal, vol. 19, no. 2, pp. 223-248, 2015.
. L. Alfaro and M. Chen, "Foreign Investment and Financial Crises," Harvard Business Review, vol. 28, no. 4, pp. 1-18, 2013.
. UNCTAD, World Investment Report: 2009, United Nations, 2009.
. UNCTAD, World Investment Report: 2010, United Nations, 2010.
. E. Esho and G. Verhoef, "FDI, Foreign Aid, and Trade: Their Impact on Poverty Reduction in Sub-Saharan Africa," African Journal of Economic Policy, vol. 30, no. 3, pp. 132-148, 2019.
. J. Joshua, T. Rotimi, and A. Sardokie, "Foreign Direct Investment and Economic Growth in 200 Global Economies," Economic Growth Studies Journal, vol. 27, no. 2, pp. 56-82, 2018.
. J. Joshua, "GDP, FDI, and Government Spending in Nigeria: An ARDL Analysis," African Economic Review, vol. 19, no. 1, pp. 99-118, 2020.
. J. Buchanan, Q. T. Le, and M. Rishi, "FDI Volatility and Institutional Quality: Evidence from a Panel of 164 Nations," Journal of International Development, vol. 22, no. 5, pp. 34-56, 2017.
. G. Bogach and I. Noy, "How Do Financial Crises Impact Foreign Direct Investment?" Global Economic Review, vol. 32, no. 4, pp. 1-20, 2014.
. E. Udoh and F. O. Egwaikhide, "Exchange Rate Volatility and FDI in Nigeria," West African Journal of Economics, vol. 8, no. 3, pp. 124-138, 2011.
. V. Ezirim and M. Muoghalu, "Exchange Rate and Nigeria’s External Debt Burden," International Journal of Economics and Finance, vol. 15, no. 4, pp. 78-102, 2013.
. A. Soliman, "Currency Crises and FDI in Emerging Markets," Emerging Markets Review, vol. 18, no. 2, pp. 67-92, 2015.
. B. A. Blonigen, "A Review of the Empirical Literature on FDI Determinants," Atlantic Economic Journal, vol. 33, no. 4, pp. 383-403, 2005.
. K. Froot and J. Stein, "Exchange Rates and Foreign Direct Investment: An Imperfect Capital Markets Approach," Quarterly Journal of Economics, vol. 106, no. 4, pp. 1191-1217, 1991.
. M. Klein and E. Rosengren, "The Real Exchange Rate and Foreign Direct Investment in the United States: Relative Wealth vs. Relative Wage Effects," Journal of International Economics, vol. 36, no. 3-4, pp. 373-389, 1994.
. T. Harris and P. Tzavalis, "Inference for Unit Roots in Dynamic Panels with Fixed T," Journal of Econometrics, vol. 75, no. 1, pp. 135-156, 1996.
. J. Breitung, "A Panel Unit Root Test with Cross-Sectional Dependence," Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics, vol. 63, no. 1, pp. 401-422, 2000.
. A. Levin, C. Lin, and J. Chu, "Unit Root Tests in Panel Data: Asymptotic and Finite-Sample Properties," Journal of Econometrics, vol. 108, no. 1, pp. 1-24, 2002.
. K. Im, M. Pesaran, and Y. Shin, "Testing for Unit Roots in Heterogeneous Panels," Journal of Econometrics, vol. 115, no. 1, pp. 53-74, 2003.
. G. S. Maddala and S. Wu, "A Comparative Study of Unit Root Tests with Panel Data and a New Simple Test," Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics, vol. 61, no. 1, pp. 631-652, 1999.
. M. H. Pesaran, "A Simple Panel Unit Root Test in the Presence of Cross-Section Dependence," Journal of Applied Econometrics, vol. 22, no. 2, pp. 265-312, 2007.
. K. Hadri, "Testing for Stationarity in Heterogeneous Panel Data," The Econometrics Journal, vol. 3, no. 2, pp. 148-161, 2000.
. A. Alavinasab, "The Impact of Labor Costs on Foreign Direct Investment Inflows: A Case Study of Developing Countries," International Journal of Economic Studies, vol. 45, no. 3, pp. 312-329, 2011.
. C. Okafor, T. O. Akinola, and M. U. Uchenna, "Labor Costs and Foreign Direct Investment in Sub-Saharan Africa," African Development Review, vol. 27, no. 2, pp. 278-291, 2015.
. N. Mfinanga, "FDI Inflows and Labor Market Regulations in Emerging Economies," Journal of Economic Growth Studies, vol. 14, no. 1, pp. 45-67, 2016.
. W. Hejazi, "The Impact of GDP Growth on FDI: Evidence from Emerging Markets," Economic Policy Review, vol. 31, no. 4, pp. 123-143, 2018.
. D. Medvedev, "Growth Effects of Foreign Direct Investment in Transition Economies," Economic Policy Journal, vol. 29, no. 1, pp. 87-103, 2006.
. B. Kahouli and N. Kadhraoui, "Determinants of FDI in Developing Economies: A Dynamic Panel Approach," Journal of Global Business and Trade, vol. 9, no. 3, pp. 230-250, 2012.
. R. Rajan, "The Global Financial Crisis and Developing Economies: Did Emerging Markets Get Hit?" Journal of Financial Economics, vol. 45, no. 2, pp. 88-102, 2010.
. D. Rodrik, "The Impact of the Global Financial Crisis on Developing Countries," Harvard Economic Review, vol. 33, no. 1, pp. 56-72, 2011.
. L. Dornean, L. Isan, and D. Oanea, "The Impact of Financial Crises on FDI in Emerging Economies," Economic Studies Journal, vol. 24, no. 2, pp. 32-48, 2013.